Fix: partial refresh, but color still in negative

main/display/eink_display_handler.cpp

@@ -11,48 +11,52 @@
 #define DISPLAY_BUFFER_SIZE (EINK_HEIGHT* EINK_WIDTH) / 8 // 1 bit per pixels
 #define MINIMUM_PIN_SETUP_DELAY_MS 10
 #define MINIMUM_POWER_ON_DELAY_MS 100
-#define BUSY_ACTIVE_LEVEL   0  // BUSY pin is active low
-#define BUSY_INACTIVE_LEVEL 1
-#define DMA_TRANSFER_CHUNK_SIZE 4096  // 4KB chunk size for DMA transfers
 
-static uint8_t white_data[DISPLAY_BUFFER_SIZE]; // all white data
+static uint8_t* DRAW_BUFFER; // 1 bit per pixel
-static uint8_t black_data[DISPLAY_BUFFER_SIZE]; // all black data
+static uint8_t* OLD_DRAW_BUFFER; // 1 bit per pixel
+static uint8_t* black_data;
+static uint8_t* white_data;
 
 EInkDisplayHandler::EInkDisplayHandler() {
-  memset(white_data, 0xFF, sizeof(white_data));
+  black_data = static_cast<uint8_t*>(heap_caps_malloc(DISPLAY_BUFFER_SIZE, MALLOC_CAP_SPIRAM));
-  memset(black_data, 0x00, sizeof(black_data));
+  white_data = static_cast<uint8_t*>(heap_caps_malloc(DISPLAY_BUFFER_SIZE, MALLOC_CAP_SPIRAM));
-  spi_mutex_ = xSemaphoreCreateMutex();
+  DRAW_BUFFER = static_cast<uint8_t*>(heap_caps_malloc(DISPLAY_BUFFER_SIZE, MALLOC_CAP_SPIRAM));
-  if (spi_mutex_ == nullptr) {
+  OLD_DRAW_BUFFER = static_cast<uint8_t*>(heap_caps_malloc(DISPLAY_BUFFER_SIZE, MALLOC_CAP_SPIRAM));
-    ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to create SPI mutex");
+  memset(black_data, 0xFF, DISPLAY_BUFFER_SIZE); // eink uses 1 for black
-  }
+  memset(white_data, 0x00, DISPLAY_BUFFER_SIZE);
-  spi_transaction_mutex_ = xSemaphoreCreateMutex();
+  memset(DRAW_BUFFER, 0x00, DISPLAY_BUFFER_SIZE); // start with all white (0 = white in e-ink)
-  if (spi_transaction_mutex_ == nullptr) {
+  memset(OLD_DRAW_BUFFER, 0x00, DISPLAY_BUFFER_SIZE); // start with all white (0 = white in e-ink)
-    ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to create SPI transaction mutex");
+  draw_buffer_ = DRAW_BUFFER;
-  }
+  old_buffer_ = OLD_DRAW_BUFFER;
+
   refresh_mutex_ = xSemaphoreCreateMutex();
   if (refresh_mutex_ == nullptr) {
     ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to create refresh mutex");
   }
 }
+
 EInkDisplayHandler::~EInkDisplayHandler() {
-  if (spi_mutex_ != nullptr) {
-    vSemaphoreDelete(spi_mutex_);
-  }
-  if (spi_transaction_mutex_ != nullptr) {
-    vSemaphoreDelete(spi_transaction_mutex_);
-  }
   if (refresh_mutex_ != nullptr) {
     vSemaphoreDelete(refresh_mutex_);
   }
-  if (spi_ != nullptr) {
-    spi_bus_remove_device(spi_);
-  }
   if (tp_handle_ != nullptr) {
     esp_lcd_touch_del(tp_handle_);
   }
   if (tp_io_handle_ != nullptr) {
     esp_lcd_panel_io_del(tp_io_handle_);
   }
+  if (black_data != nullptr) {
+    heap_caps_free(black_data);
+  }
+  if (white_data != nullptr) {
+    heap_caps_free(white_data);
+  }
+  if (DRAW_BUFFER != nullptr) {
+    heap_caps_free(DRAW_BUFFER);
+  }
+  if (OLD_DRAW_BUFFER != nullptr) {
+    heap_caps_free(OLD_DRAW_BUFFER);
+  }
 }
 
 esp_err_t EInkDisplayHandler::deep_sleep_display(void) {
@@ -63,26 +67,26 @@ esp_err_t EInkDisplayHandler::deep_sleep_display(void) {
   }
   {
     esp_err_t err = ESP_OK;
-    TransactionGuard transaction_guard(*this);
+    TransactionGuard transaction_guard(this->epd_handler_);
     err = transaction_guard.begin(pdMS_TO_TICKS(5000));
     if (err != ESP_OK) {
       ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to begin transaction for deep sleep: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
       return err;
     }
-    wait_for_idle();
+    epd_handler_.wait_for_idle();
 
-    err = epd_write_cmd(0x02, transaction_guard.transaction_id()); // power off
+    err = epd_handler_.epd_write_cmd(0x02, transaction_guard.transaction_id()); // power off
     if (err != ESP_OK) {
       ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to send power off command: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
       return err;
     }
-    wait_for_idle();
+    epd_handler_.wait_for_idle();
-    err = epd_write_cmd(0x07, transaction_guard.transaction_id());   //deep sleep
+    err = epd_handler_.epd_write_cmd(0x07, transaction_guard.transaction_id());   //deep sleep
     if (err != ESP_OK) {
       ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to send deep sleep command: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
       return err;
     }
-    err = epd_write_data(0xA5, transaction_guard.transaction_id());
+    err = epd_handler_.epd_write_data(0xA5, transaction_guard.transaction_id());
     if (err != ESP_OK) {
       ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to send deep sleep data: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
       return err;
@@ -95,32 +99,32 @@ esp_err_t EInkDisplayHandler::deep_sleep_display(void) {
 esp_err_t EInkDisplayHandler::refresh_display() {
   esp_err_t err = ESP_OK;
 
-  if (is_deep_sleep_) {
-    epd_init_();
-  }
-
   {
     ESP_LOGI(TAG, "Waiting for display to be idle...");
-    TransactionGuard transaction_guard(*this);
+    TransactionGuard transaction_guard(this->epd_handler_);
     err = transaction_guard.begin(pdMS_TO_TICKS(10000));
     if (err != ESP_OK) {
       ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to begin transaction for display refresh: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
       return err;
     }
-    wait_for_idle();
+    if (is_deep_sleep_) {
+      epd_init_internal_(transaction_guard.transaction_id());
+    }
+
+    epd_handler_.wait_for_idle();
     ESP_LOGI(TAG, "Starting display refresh...");
-    err = epd_write_cmd(0x92, transaction_guard.transaction_id()); // enter normal mode
+    err = epd_handler_.epd_write_cmd(0x92, transaction_guard.transaction_id()); // enter normal mode
     if (err != ESP_OK) {
       ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to enter normal mode: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
       return err;
     }
-    err = epd_write_cmd(0x12, transaction_guard.transaction_id()); // display refresh
+    err = epd_handler_.epd_write_cmd(0x12, transaction_guard.transaction_id()); // display refresh
     if (err != ESP_OK) {
       ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to send display refresh command: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
       return err;
     }
     vTaskDelay(pdMS_TO_TICKS(MINIMUM_PIN_SETUP_DELAY_MS)); // at least 200us delay
-    wait_for_idle();
+    epd_handler_.wait_for_idle();
   }
 
   {
@@ -133,12 +137,6 @@ esp_err_t EInkDisplayHandler::refresh_display() {
     force_full_refresh_ = false;
   }
 
-  err = deep_sleep_display();
-  if (err != ESP_OK) {
-    ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to enter deep sleep after refresh: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
-    return err;
-  }
-
   ESP_LOGI(TAG, "Refresh complete");
   return ESP_OK;
 }
@@ -147,33 +145,35 @@ esp_err_t EInkDisplayHandler::full_write(const uint8_t* framebuffer, const bool
   ESP_LOGI(TAG, "Starting full refresh (3 seconds)...");
   esp_err_t err = ESP_OK;
 
-  if (is_deep_sleep_) {
-    epd_init_();
-  }
 
   {
-    TransactionGuard transaction_guard(*this);
+    TransactionGuard transaction_guard(this->epd_handler_);
     err = transaction_guard.begin(pdMS_TO_TICKS(10000));
     if (err != ESP_OK) {
       ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to begin transaction for full refresh: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
       return err;
     }
+    if (is_deep_sleep_) {
+      epd_init_internal_(transaction_guard.transaction_id());
+    }
 
-    wait_for_idle();
+    write_to_buffer_(framebuffer, RefreshArea { 0, 0, DISPLAY_WIDTH - 1,  DISPLAY_HEIGHT - 1 });
+
+    epd_handler_.wait_for_idle();
     // Step 0: Enter normal mode
-    err = epd_write_cmd(0x92, transaction_guard.transaction_id()); // enter normal mode
+    err = epd_handler_.epd_write_cmd(0x92, transaction_guard.transaction_id()); // enter normal mode
     if (err != ESP_OK) {
       ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to enter normal mode: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
       return err;
     }
     // Step 1: Write old data (0x10) - Arduino uses 0xFF (all white) for base map
     {
-      err = epd_write_cmd(0x10, transaction_guard.transaction_id());
+      err = epd_handler_.epd_write_cmd(0x10, transaction_guard.transaction_id());
       if (err != ESP_OK) {
         ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to send old data command: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
         return err;
       }
-      err = transfer_spi_data(white_basemap ? white_data : black_data, DISPLAY_BUFFER_SIZE, transaction_guard.transaction_id()); // Send all white data (0xFF)
+      err = epd_handler_.transfer_spi_data(white_basemap ? black_data : white_data, DISPLAY_BUFFER_SIZE, transaction_guard.transaction_id()); // Send all white data (0xFF)
       if (err != ESP_OK) {
         ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to send all white data for old data: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
         return err;
@@ -182,20 +182,20 @@ esp_err_t EInkDisplayHandler::full_write(const uint8_t* framebuffer, const bool
 
     // Step 2: Write new data (0x13)
     {
-      err = epd_write_cmd(0x13, transaction_guard.transaction_id());
+      err = epd_handler_.epd_write_cmd(0x13, transaction_guard.transaction_id());
       if (err != ESP_OK) {
         ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to send new data command: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
         return err;
       }
 
-      err = transfer_spi_data(framebuffer, DISPLAY_BUFFER_SIZE, transaction_guard.transaction_id()); // Send new framebuffer data
+      err = epd_handler_.transfer_spi_data(draw_buffer_, DISPLAY_BUFFER_SIZE, transaction_guard.transaction_id()); // Send new framebuffer data
       if (err != ESP_OK) {
         ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to send framebuffer data for new data: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
         return err;
       }
     }
     // Step 3: Trigger display refresh (DRF)
-    err = epd_write_cmd(0x12, transaction_guard.transaction_id());
+    err = epd_handler_.epd_write_cmd(0x12, transaction_guard.transaction_id());
     if (err != ESP_OK) {
       ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to send display refresh command: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
       return err;
@@ -205,7 +205,7 @@ esp_err_t EInkDisplayHandler::full_write(const uint8_t* framebuffer, const bool
     ESP_LOGI(TAG, "Display refresh triggered, BUSY pin: %d", gpio_get_level(PIN_BUSY));
 
     // Wait for refresh to complete
-    wait_for_idle();
+    epd_handler_.wait_for_idle();
   }
 
   err = deep_sleep_display();
@@ -214,57 +214,95 @@ esp_err_t EInkDisplayHandler::full_write(const uint8_t* framebuffer, const bool
     return err;
   }
 
+  refresh_area_.reset();
+  memcpy(old_buffer_, draw_buffer_, DISPLAY_BUFFER_SIZE);
+
   ESP_LOGI(TAG, "Full refresh complete");
   return ESP_OK;
 }
 
-esp_err_t EInkDisplayHandler::partial_refresh(const uint8_t* partial_framebuffer, const RefreshArea& area) {
+// TODO: Partial refresh is inverted in color
+esp_err_t EInkDisplayHandler::partial_refresh(const uint8_t* incoming_partial_framebuffer, const RefreshArea& incoming_area, const bool is_last_partial_update) {
   ESP_LOGI(TAG, "Starting partial refresh (0.3 seconds)...");
   esp_err_t err = ESP_OK;
 
-  // Calculate partial buffer size based on the refresh area
+  write_to_buffer_(incoming_partial_framebuffer, incoming_area);
-  const uint32_t area_width_bytes = (area.x2 - area.x1 + 1) / 8;
-  const uint32_t area_height = area.y2 - area.y1 + 1;
-  const size_t partial_buffer_size = area_width_bytes * area_height;
 
+  // Always expand refresh_area_ to include incoming_area
+  refresh_area_.expand_to_include(incoming_area);
+
+  if (!is_last_partial_update) {
+    ESP_LOGI(TAG, "Partial refresh skipped (not last partial update)");
+    return ESP_OK;
+  }
   {
-    TransactionGuard transaction_guard(*this);
+    TransactionGuard transaction_guard(this->epd_handler_);
     err = transaction_guard.begin(pdMS_TO_TICKS(5000));
     if (err != ESP_OK) {
       ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to begin transaction for partial refresh: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
       return err;
     }
-
     // Wake display from deep sleep INSIDE the transaction to prevent race conditions
     if (is_deep_sleep_) {
-      err = epd_init_partial_internal_(transaction_guard.transaction_id());
+      err = epd_init_internal_(transaction_guard.transaction_id());
       if (err != ESP_OK) {
         ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to initialize EPD for partial refresh: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
         return err;
       }
+      err = refresh_old_buffer_(transaction_guard.transaction_id());
+      if (err != ESP_OK) {
+        ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to refresh old buffer during partial refresh init: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
+        return err;
+      }
     }
 
-    wait_for_idle();
+
+    RefreshArea area = refresh_area_;
+    if (area.x1 % 8 != 0 || area.x2 % 8 != 7) {
+      ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Partial refresh area x1 and x2 must be byte-aligned (x1 %% 8 == 0 and x2 %% 8 == 7)");
+      ESP_LOGI(TAG, "Given area: x1=%d, x2=%d", area.x1, area.x2);
+      return ESP_ERR_INVALID_ARG;
+    }
+
+    // Calculate partial buffer size based on the refresh area
+    const uint32_t area_width_bytes = (area.x2 - area.x1 + 1) / 8;
+    const uint32_t area_height = area.y2 - area.y1 + 1;
+    const size_t partial_buffer_size = area_width_bytes * area_height;
+
+    // uint8_t* partial_buffer = new uint8_t[partial_buffer_size];
+    uint8_t* partial_buffer = static_cast<uint8_t*>(heap_caps_malloc(partial_buffer_size, MALLOC_CAP_DMA | MALLOC_CAP_INTERNAL));
+
+    if (partial_buffer == nullptr) {
+      ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to allocate partial buffer for partial refresh");
+      return ESP_ERR_NO_MEM;
+    }
+    // Copy the relevant area from draw_buffer_ to partial_buffer
+    for (int32_t row = 0; row < area_height; ++row) {
+      uint32_t fb_y = area.y1 + row;
+      uint32_t fb_x_byte_start = area.x1 / 8;
+      uint8_t* fb_ptr = &draw_buffer_[fb_y * (DISPLAY_WIDTH / 8) + fb_x_byte_start];
+      uint8_t* dest_ptr = &partial_buffer[row * area_width_bytes];
+      memcpy(dest_ptr, fb_ptr, area_width_bytes);
+    }
+
+
+    epd_handler_.wait_for_idle();
 
     // Step 1 VCOM setting
     std::vector<uint8_t> vcom_data = { 0xA9, 0x07 };
-    err = epd_write_cmd_with_data(0x50, vcom_data, transaction_guard.transaction_id()); // VCOM for partial refresh
+    err = epd_handler_.epd_write_cmd_with_data(0x50, vcom_data, transaction_guard.transaction_id()); // VCOM for partial refresh
     if (err != ESP_OK) {
       ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to set VCOM for partial refresh: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
       return err;
     }
     // Step 2: Enter partial refresh mode
-    err = epd_write_cmd(0x91, transaction_guard.transaction_id());  // Enter partial mode
+    err = epd_handler_.epd_write_cmd(0x91, transaction_guard.transaction_id());  // Enter partial mode
     if (err != ESP_OK) {
       ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to enter partial refresh mode: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
       return err;
     }
     // Step 3: Set partial window
     {
-      if (area.x1 % 8 != 0 || area.x2 % 8 != 7) {
-        ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Partial refresh area x1 and x2 must be byte-aligned (x1 %% 8 == 0 and x2 %% 8 == 7)");
-        return ESP_ERR_INVALID_ARG;
-      }
       // ------DD
       // DDDDD000
       // ------DD
@@ -302,33 +340,41 @@ esp_err_t EInkDisplayHandler::partial_refresh(const uint8_t* partial_framebuffer
       ESP_LOGI(TAG, "Partial window data: %02X %02X %02X %02X %02X %02X %02X %02X",
         window_data[0], window_data[1], window_data[2], window_data[3], window_data[4],
         window_data[5], window_data[6], window_data[7]);
-      err = epd_write_cmd_with_data(0x90, window_data, transaction_guard.transaction_id());  // Set partial window
+      err = epd_handler_.epd_write_cmd_with_data(0x90, window_data, transaction_guard.transaction_id());  // Set partial window
       if (err != ESP_OK) {
         ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to send set partial window command: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
         return err;
       }
     }
 
-    // Step 4: Write new data (0x13)
+    // Step 5: Write new data (0x13)
     {
-      err = epd_write_cmd(0x13, transaction_guard.transaction_id());
+      err = epd_handler_.epd_write_cmd(0x13, transaction_guard.transaction_id());
       if (err != ESP_OK) {
         ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to send new data command for partial refresh: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
+        heap_caps_free(partial_buffer);
         return err;
       }
 
       // Send only the partial area data, not the full display buffer
-      ESP_LOGI(TAG, "Sending partial buffer: %zu bytes (area: %dx%d)",
+      ESP_LOGI(TAG, "Sending new partial buffer: %zu bytes (area: %dx%d)",
         partial_buffer_size, area_width_bytes * 8, area_height);
-      err = transfer_spi_data(partial_framebuffer, partial_buffer_size, transaction_guard.transaction_id());
+      err = epd_handler_.transfer_spi_data(partial_buffer, partial_buffer_size, transaction_guard.transaction_id());
       if (err != ESP_OK) {
-        ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to send partial_framebuffer data for partial refresh: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
+        ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to send partial_buffer data for partial refresh: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
+        heap_caps_free(partial_buffer);
         return err;
       }
+
+      memcpy(old_buffer_, draw_buffer_, DISPLAY_BUFFER_SIZE);
     }
 
-    // Step 5: Trigger partial display refresh (DRF) by ending the data write
+    // Clean up partial buffer
-    err = epd_write_cmd(0x11, transaction_guard.transaction_id());
+    heap_caps_free(partial_buffer);
+
+    // Step 6: Trigger partial display refresh (DRF)
+    // Use 0x12 (Display Update) command - same as full refresh, per sample code
+    err = epd_handler_.epd_write_cmd(0x12, transaction_guard.transaction_id());
     if (err != ESP_OK) {
       ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to send display refresh command for partial refresh: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
       return err;
@@ -336,9 +382,9 @@ esp_err_t EInkDisplayHandler::partial_refresh(const uint8_t* partial_framebuffer
 
     vTaskDelay(pdMS_TO_TICKS(MINIMUM_PIN_SETUP_DELAY_MS)); // at least 200us delay
 
-    wait_for_idle();
+    epd_handler_.wait_for_idle();
-    // Step 6: Exit partial mode
+    // Step 7: Exit partial mode
-    err = epd_write_cmd(0x92, transaction_guard.transaction_id());
+    err = epd_handler_.epd_write_cmd(0x92, transaction_guard.transaction_id());
     if (err != ESP_OK) {
       ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to exit partial refresh mode: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
       return err;
@@ -378,13 +424,16 @@ esp_err_t EInkDisplayHandler::partial_refresh(const uint8_t* partial_framebuffer
     return err;
   }
 
+
+  refresh_area_.reset();
+
   return ESP_OK;
 }
 
 esp_err_t EInkDisplayHandler::clear_display(void) {
   ESP_LOGI(TAG, "Clearing display to all white...");
 
-  esp_err_t err = full_write(black_data, false);
+  esp_err_t err = full_write(white_data, false);
   if (err != ESP_OK) {
     ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to clear display: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
     return err;
@@ -393,7 +442,19 @@ esp_err_t EInkDisplayHandler::clear_display(void) {
   return ESP_OK;
 }
 
+void EInkDisplayHandler::write_to_buffer_(const uint8_t* src_buffer, const RefreshArea& area) {
+  // Copy the relevant area from src_buffer to draw_buffer_
+  const uint32_t area_width_bytes = (area.x2 - area.x1 + 1) / 8;
+  const uint32_t area_height = area.y2 - area.y1 + 1;
 
+  for (int32_t row = 0; row < area_height; ++row) {
+    uint32_t fb_y = area.y1 + row;
+    uint32_t fb_x_byte_start = area.x1 / 8;
+    const uint8_t* src_ptr = &src_buffer[row * area_width_bytes];
+    uint8_t* dest_ptr = &draw_buffer_[fb_y * (DISPLAY_WIDTH / 8) + fb_x_byte_start];
+    memcpy(dest_ptr, src_ptr, area_width_bytes);
+  }
+}
 
 // Request a full refresh on next flush
 void EInkDisplayHandler::request_full_refresh(void) {
@@ -407,26 +468,6 @@ void EInkDisplayHandler::request_full_refresh(void) {
   }
 }
 
-// Check if display is busy (refreshing)
-bool EInkDisplayHandler::is_busy(void) const {
-  return gpio_get_level(PIN_BUSY) == BUSY_ACTIVE_LEVEL;  // BUSY is active LOW
-}
-void EInkDisplayHandler::wait_for_idle(void) const {
-  ESP_LOGI(TAG, "Waiting for display ready (BUSY pin)...");
-  int initial_level = gpio_get_level(PIN_BUSY);
-  ESP_LOGI(TAG, "Initial BUSY pin level: %d (0=BUSY, 1=FREE)", initial_level);
-
-  // If already free, no need to wait
-  if (initial_level == BUSY_INACTIVE_LEVEL) {
-    ESP_LOGI(TAG, "Display already ready (BUSY pin = 1)");
-    return;
-  }
-  while (gpio_get_level(PIN_BUSY) != BUSY_INACTIVE_LEVEL) {
-    vTaskDelay(pdMS_TO_TICKS(10));
-  }
-  ESP_LOGI(TAG, "Display is now ready (BUSY pin = 1)");
-}
-
 
 esp_err_t EInkDisplayHandler::init_devices(EventGroupHandle_t system_event_group) {
   esp_err_t err;
@@ -435,9 +476,9 @@ esp_err_t EInkDisplayHandler::init_devices(EventGroupHandle_t system_event_group
     ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to initialize display pins: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
     return err;
   }
-  err = epd_init_();
+  err = this->epd_handler_.init();
   if (err != ESP_OK) {
-    ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to initialize EPD: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
+    ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to initialize EPD handler: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
     return err;
   }
   err = init_touch_();
@@ -445,12 +486,6 @@ esp_err_t EInkDisplayHandler::init_devices(EventGroupHandle_t system_event_group
     ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to initialize touch: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
     return err;
   }
-  err = deep_sleep_display();
-  if (err != ESP_OK) {
-    ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to put display into deep sleep: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
-    return err;
-  }
-
   // if system_event_group is provided, set display ready bits
   if (system_event_group != nullptr) {
     // Indicate that display is ready
@@ -489,138 +524,80 @@ esp_err_t EInkDisplayHandler::init_display_pins_(void) {
     return ret;
   }
 
-  // Initialize SPI bus
-  spi_bus_config_t buscfg = {};
-  buscfg.mosi_io_num = 11;  // MOSI pin
-  buscfg.miso_io_num = -1;  // No MISO for e-paper
-  buscfg.sclk_io_num = 12;  // SCK pin
-  buscfg.quadwp_io_num = -1;
-  buscfg.quadhd_io_num = -1;
-  buscfg.max_transfer_sz = DISPLAY_BUFFER_SIZE;
-
-  ret = spi_bus_initialize(SPI2_HOST, &buscfg, SPI_DMA_CH_AUTO);
-  if (ret != ESP_OK) {
-    ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to initialize SPI bus: %s", esp_err_to_name(ret));
-    return ret;
-  }
-
-  // Add SPI device
-  spi_device_interface_config_t devcfg = {};
-  devcfg.clock_speed_hz = 10 * 1000 * 1000;  // 10 MHz
-  devcfg.mode = 0;  // SPI mode 0
-  devcfg.spics_io_num = PIN_CS;
-  devcfg.queue_size = 7;  // Queue size for non-blocking transactions
-  devcfg.pre_cb = nullptr;
-
-  ret = spi_bus_add_device(SPI2_HOST, &devcfg, &spi_);
-  if (ret != ESP_OK) {
-    ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to add SPI device: %s", esp_err_to_name(ret));
-    return ret;
-  }
   return ESP_OK;
 }
 
-
+esp_err_t EInkDisplayHandler::epd_init_internal_(uint32_t transaction_id) {
-// required to be called by inheriting class after SPI device is created
-esp_err_t EInkDisplayHandler::epd_init_(void) {
   ESP_LOGI(TAG, "Initializing EPD...");
   esp_err_t err;
 
-  {
-    TransactionGuard transaction_guard(*this);
-    esp_err_t begin_err = transaction_guard.begin();
-    if (begin_err != ESP_OK) {
-      ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to begin transaction: %s", esp_err_to_name(begin_err));
-      return begin_err;
-    }
 
-    // 1. Hardware Reset
+  // 1. Hardware Reset
-    err = gpio_set_level(PIN_RST, 0);
+  err = gpio_set_level(PIN_RST, 0);
-    if (err != ESP_OK) {
+  if (err != ESP_OK) {
-      ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to set PIN_RST low: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
+    ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to set PIN_RST low: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
-      return err;
+    return err;
-    }
-    vTaskDelay(pdMS_TO_TICKS(MINIMUM_PIN_SETUP_DELAY_MS));
-    err = gpio_set_level(PIN_RST, 1);
-    if (err != ESP_OK) {
-      ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to set PIN_RST high: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
-      return err;
-    }
-    vTaskDelay(pdMS_TO_TICKS(MINIMUM_PIN_SETUP_DELAY_MS));
-
-    // 2. Initialization Sequence
-    std::vector<uint8_t> panel_setting_data = { 0x1F };
-    err = epd_write_cmd_with_data(0x00, panel_setting_data, transaction_guard.transaction_id()); // Panel Setting
-    if (err != ESP_OK) {
-      ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to send Panel Setting command: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
-      return err;
-    }
-    vTaskDelay(pdMS_TO_TICKS(MINIMUM_PIN_SETUP_DELAY_MS));
-    std::vector<uint8_t> vcom_data = { 0x10, 0x07 };
-    err = epd_write_cmd_with_data(0x50, vcom_data, transaction_guard.transaction_id()); // VCOM
-    if (err != ESP_OK) {
-      ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to send VCOM command: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
-      return err;
-    }
-    vTaskDelay(pdMS_TO_TICKS(MINIMUM_PIN_SETUP_DELAY_MS));
-    err = epd_write_cmd(0x04, transaction_guard.transaction_id()); // Power ON
-    if (err != ESP_OK) {
-      ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to send Power ON command: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
-      return err;
-    }
-    vTaskDelay(pdMS_TO_TICKS(MINIMUM_POWER_ON_DELAY_MS)); // Wait for power on
-
-    // Check BUSY pin with detailed logging
-    ESP_LOGI(TAG, "Waiting for EPD to be ready after power on...");
-    ESP_LOGI(TAG, "BUSY pin level after power on: %d (0=BUSY, 1=FREE)", gpio_get_level(PIN_BUSY));
-
-    int busy_timeout = 0;
-    while (gpio_get_level(PIN_BUSY) == BUSY_ACTIVE_LEVEL) {  // BUSY is active LOW
-      vTaskDelay(pdMS_TO_TICKS(MINIMUM_PIN_SETUP_DELAY_MS));
-      busy_timeout++;
-      if (busy_timeout > 500) {  // 5 second timeout
-        ESP_LOGE(TAG, "EPD power on timeout! BUSY pin stuck at 0");
-        return ESP_ERR_TIMEOUT;
-      }
-      if (busy_timeout % 50 == 0) {  // Log every 500ms
-        ESP_LOGW(TAG, "Still waiting for EPD power on, timeout: %d/500", busy_timeout);
-      }
-    }
-    ESP_LOGI(TAG, "EPD power on complete after %d * 10ms, BUSY pin: %d", busy_timeout, gpio_get_level(PIN_BUSY));
-    std::vector<uint8_t> booster_data = { 0x27, 0x27, 0x18, 0x17 };
-    err = epd_write_cmd_with_data(0x06, booster_data, transaction_guard.transaction_id()); // Booster Soft Start
-    if (err != ESP_OK) {
-      ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to send Booster Soft Start command: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
-      return err;
-    }
-    vTaskDelay(pdMS_TO_TICKS(MINIMUM_PIN_SETUP_DELAY_MS));
-
-    // Enhanced display drive commands
-    std::vector<uint8_t> e0_data = { 0x02 };
-    err = epd_write_cmd_with_data(0xE0, e0_data, transaction_guard.transaction_id());
-    if (err != ESP_OK) {
-      ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to send Enhanced Display Drive command: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
-      return err;
-    }
-    std::vector<uint8_t> e5_data = { 0x5A };
-    err = epd_write_cmd_with_data(0xE5, e5_data, transaction_guard.transaction_id());
-    if (err != ESP_OK) {
-      ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to send Enhanced Display Drive command: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
-      return err;
-    }
   }
+  vTaskDelay(pdMS_TO_TICKS(MINIMUM_PIN_SETUP_DELAY_MS));
+  err = gpio_set_level(PIN_RST, 1);
+  if (err != ESP_OK) {
+    ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to set PIN_RST high: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
+    return err;
+  }
+  vTaskDelay(pdMS_TO_TICKS(MINIMUM_PIN_SETUP_DELAY_MS));
+
+  // 2. Initialization Sequence
+  std::vector<uint8_t> panel_setting_data = { 0x1F };
+  err = epd_handler_.epd_write_cmd_with_data(0x00, panel_setting_data, transaction_id); // Panel Setting
+  if (err != ESP_OK) {
+    ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to send Panel Setting command: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
+    return err;
+  }
+  vTaskDelay(pdMS_TO_TICKS(MINIMUM_PIN_SETUP_DELAY_MS));
+  std::vector<uint8_t> vcom_data = { 0x10, 0x07 };
+  err = epd_handler_.epd_write_cmd_with_data(0x50, vcom_data, transaction_id); // VCOM
+  if (err != ESP_OK) {
+    ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to send VCOM command: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
+    return err;
+  }
+  vTaskDelay(pdMS_TO_TICKS(MINIMUM_PIN_SETUP_DELAY_MS));
+  err = epd_handler_.epd_write_cmd(0x04, transaction_id); // Power ON
+  if (err != ESP_OK) {
+    ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to send Power ON command: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
+    return err;
+  }
+  vTaskDelay(pdMS_TO_TICKS(MINIMUM_POWER_ON_DELAY_MS)); // Wait for power on
+
+  // Check BUSY pin with detailed logging
+  ESP_LOGI(TAG, "Waiting for EPD to be ready after power on...");
+  ESP_LOGI(TAG, "BUSY pin level after power on: %d (0=BUSY, 1=FREE)", gpio_get_level(PIN_BUSY));
+
+  epd_handler_.wait_for_idle();
+  std::vector<uint8_t> booster_data = { 0x27, 0x27, 0x18, 0x17 };
+  err = epd_handler_.epd_write_cmd_with_data(0x06, booster_data, transaction_id); // Booster Soft Start
+  if (err != ESP_OK) {
+    ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to send Booster Soft Start command: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
+    return err;
+  }
+  vTaskDelay(pdMS_TO_TICKS(MINIMUM_PIN_SETUP_DELAY_MS));
+
+  // Enhanced display drive commands
+  std::vector<uint8_t> e0_data = { 0x02 };
+  err = epd_handler_.epd_write_cmd_with_data(0xE0, e0_data, transaction_id);
+  if (err != ESP_OK) {
+    ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to send Enhanced Display Drive command: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
+    return err;
+  }
+  std::vector<uint8_t> e5_data = { 0x5A };
+  err = epd_handler_.epd_write_cmd_with_data(0xE5, e5_data, transaction_id);
+  if (err != ESP_OK) {
+    ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to send Enhanced Display Drive command: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
+    return err;
+  }
+
   is_deep_sleep_ = false;
-  return err;
-}
 
-esp_err_t EInkDisplayHandler::epd_init_partial_(void) {
+  return err;
-  TransactionGuard transaction_guard(*this);
-  esp_err_t begin_err = transaction_guard.begin();
-  if (begin_err != ESP_OK) {
-    ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to begin transaction: %s", esp_err_to_name(begin_err));
-    return begin_err;
-  }
-  return epd_init_partial_internal_(transaction_guard.transaction_id());
 }
 
 // Internal version that uses an existing transaction (no separate TransactionGuard)
@@ -644,7 +621,7 @@ esp_err_t EInkDisplayHandler::epd_init_partial_internal_(uint32_t transaction_id
 
   // 2. Panel Setting
   std::vector<uint8_t> panel_setting_data = { 0x1F };
-  err = epd_write_cmd_with_data(0x00, panel_setting_data, transaction_id);
+  err = epd_handler_.epd_write_cmd_with_data(0x00, panel_setting_data, transaction_id);
   if (err != ESP_OK) {
     ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to send Panel Setting command: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
     return err;
@@ -652,30 +629,37 @@ esp_err_t EInkDisplayHandler::epd_init_partial_internal_(uint32_t transaction_id
   vTaskDelay(pdMS_TO_TICKS(MINIMUM_PIN_SETUP_DELAY_MS));
 
   // 3. Power ON
-  err = epd_write_cmd(0x04, transaction_id);
+  err = epd_handler_.epd_write_cmd(0x04, transaction_id);
   if (err != ESP_OK) {
     ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to send Power ON command: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
     return err;
   }
   vTaskDelay(pdMS_TO_TICKS(MINIMUM_POWER_ON_DELAY_MS));
-  wait_for_idle();
+  epd_handler_.wait_for_idle();
 
   // 4. Partial initialization sequence - Enhanced Display Drive
   std::vector<uint8_t> e0_data = { 0x02 };
-  err = epd_write_cmd_with_data(0xE0, e0_data, transaction_id);
+  err = epd_handler_.epd_write_cmd_with_data(0xE0, e0_data, transaction_id);
   if (err != ESP_OK) {
     ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to send Enhanced Display Drive command (E0): %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
     return err;
   }
 
   std::vector<uint8_t> e5_data = { 0x6E };
-  err = epd_write_cmd_with_data(0xE5, e5_data, transaction_id);
+  err = epd_handler_.epd_write_cmd_with_data(0xE5, e5_data, transaction_id);
   if (err != ESP_OK) {
     ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to send Enhanced Display Drive command (E5): %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
     return err;
   }
 
   is_deep_sleep_ = false;
+
+  err = refresh_old_buffer_(transaction_id);
+  if (err != ESP_OK) {
+    ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to refresh old buffer during partial init: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
+    return err;
+  }
+
   ESP_LOGI(TAG, "EPD partial init (internal) complete");
   return ESP_OK;
 }
@@ -742,201 +726,48 @@ esp_err_t EInkDisplayHandler::init_touch_() {
   return err;
 }
 
+esp_err_t EInkDisplayHandler::refresh_old_buffer_(uint32_t transaction_id) {
+  ESP_LOGI(TAG, "Refreshing display SRAM to restore state after wake...");
+  esp_err_t err;
 
-esp_err_t EInkDisplayHandler::epd_write_cmd(const uint8_t cmd, uint32_t transaction_id) {
+  err = epd_handler_.epd_write_cmd(0x92, transaction_id); // enter normal mode
-  ESP_LOGI(TAG, "epd_write_cmd: waiting to send 0x%02X", cmd);
-
-  SemaphoreGuard transaction_guard(spi_transaction_mutex_);
-  esp_err_t err =
-    wait_for_transaction_end_(pdMS_TO_TICKS(5000), transaction_id, transaction_guard);
   if (err != ESP_OK) {
-    ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to wait for previous transaction end before sending cmd 0x%02X: %s",
+    ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to enter normal mode: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
-      cmd, esp_err_to_name(err));
     return err;
   }
 
-  SemaphoreGuard guard(spi_mutex_);
+  // Write OLD data (0x10) as all 0x00 (white in e-ink terms)
-  if (!guard.take(pdMS_TO_TICKS(5000))) {
+  // This tells the controller: "assume display was all white"
-    ESP_LOGE(TAG, "SPI mutex timeout for cmd 0x%02X", cmd);
+  // Matches sample's EPD_WhiteScreen_ALL() which uses 0x00 for old SRAM
-    return ESP_ERR_TIMEOUT;
+  // The differential refresh: old=0 + new=0 → stay white, old=0 + new=1 → drive to black
-  }
+  err = epd_handler_.epd_write_cmd(0x10, transaction_id);
-  err = dangerous_epd_write_cmd_without_lock_(cmd);
-  ESP_LOGI(TAG, "epd_write_cmd: 0x%02X done", cmd);
-  return err;
-}
-
-esp_err_t EInkDisplayHandler::epd_write_data(const uint8_t data, uint32_t transaction_id) {
-  ESP_LOGI(TAG, "epd_write_data: waiting to send 0x%02X", data);
-  SemaphoreGuard transaction_guard(spi_transaction_mutex_);
-  esp_err_t err =
-    wait_for_transaction_end_(pdMS_TO_TICKS(5000), transaction_id, transaction_guard);
   if (err != ESP_OK) {
-    ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to wait for previous transaction end before sending data 0x%02X: %s",
+    ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to send old data command: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
-      data, esp_err_to_name(err));
-    return err;
-  }
-  SemaphoreGuard guard(spi_mutex_);
-  if (!guard.take(pdMS_TO_TICKS(5000))) {
-    ESP_LOGE(TAG, "SPI mutex timeout for data 0x%02X", data);
-    return ESP_ERR_TIMEOUT;
-  }
-  err = dangerous_epd_write_data_without_lock_(data);
-  ESP_LOGI(TAG, "epd_write_data: 0x%02X done", data);
-  return err;
-}
-
-esp_err_t EInkDisplayHandler::epd_write_cmd_with_data(const uint8_t cmd, std::vector<uint8_t>& data, uint32_t transaction_id) {
-  const size_t data_len = data.size();
-  ESP_LOGI(TAG, "epd_write_cmd_with_data: waiting to send cmd 0x%02X with %u bytes of data", cmd, data_len);
-
-  SemaphoreGuard transaction_guard(spi_transaction_mutex_);
-  esp_err_t err =
-    wait_for_transaction_end_(pdMS_TO_TICKS(5000), transaction_id, transaction_guard);
-  if (err != ESP_OK) {
-    ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to wait for previous transaction end before sending cmd 0x%02X: %s, with data",
-      cmd, esp_err_to_name(err));
     return err;
   }
 
-  SemaphoreGuard guard(spi_mutex_);
+  // Send the old buffer as old data
-  if (!guard.take(pdMS_TO_TICKS(5000))) {
+  err = epd_handler_.transfer_spi_data(old_buffer_, DISPLAY_BUFFER_SIZE, transaction_id);
-    ESP_LOGE(TAG, "SPI mutex timeout for cmd with data 0x%02X", cmd);
-    return ESP_ERR_TIMEOUT;
-  }
-  err = dangerous_epd_write_cmd_without_lock_(cmd);
   if (err != ESP_OK) {
-    return err;
+    ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to send white baseline to old SRAM: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
-  };
-  for (size_t i = 0; i < data_len; ++i) {
-    err = dangerous_epd_write_data_without_lock_(data[i]);
-    if (err != ESP_OK) {
-      return err;
-    }
-  }
-  ESP_LOGI(TAG, "epd_write_cmd_with_data: cmd 0x%02X with %u bytes of data done", cmd, data_len);
-  return ESP_OK;
-}
-
-
-esp_err_t EInkDisplayHandler::dangerous_epd_write_cmd_without_lock_(const uint8_t cmd) {
-  ESP_LOGI(TAG, "dangerous_epd_write_cmd_without_lock_: sending 0x%02X", cmd);
-  gpio_set_level(PIN_DC, 0); // Command mode
-  spi_transaction_t t {};
-  t.length = 8;t.tx_buffer = &cmd;
-  esp_err_t err = spi_device_polling_transmit(spi_, &t);
-  if (err != ESP_OK) {
-    ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to send data 0x%02X", cmd);
-  } else {
-    ESP_LOGI(TAG, "dangerous_epd_write_cmd_without_lock_: 0x%02X sent", cmd);
-  }
-  return err;
-}
-
-esp_err_t EInkDisplayHandler::dangerous_epd_write_data_without_lock_(const uint8_t data) {
-  ESP_LOGI(TAG, "dangerous_epd_write_data_without_lock_: sending 0x%02X", data);
-  gpio_set_level(PIN_DC, 1); // Data mode
-  spi_transaction_t t = { };
-  t.length = 8; t.tx_buffer = &data;
-  esp_err_t err = spi_device_polling_transmit(spi_, &t);
-  if (err != ESP_OK) {
-    ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to send data 0x%02X", data);
-  } else {
-    ESP_LOGI(TAG, "dangerous_epd_write_data_without_lock_: 0x%02X sent", data);
-  }
-  return err;
-}
-
-esp_err_t EInkDisplayHandler::transfer_spi_data(const uint8_t* data, const size_t& length, uint32_t transaction_id) {
-  ESP_LOGI(TAG, "transfer_spi_data: waiting to send %zu bytes of data", length);
-
-  SemaphoreGuard transaction_guard(spi_transaction_mutex_);
-  esp_err_t err =
-    wait_for_transaction_end_(pdMS_TO_TICKS(5000), transaction_id, transaction_guard);
-  if (err != ESP_OK) {
-    ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to wait for previous transaction end before sending data of %zu bytes: %s",
-      length, esp_err_to_name(err));
     return err;
   }
-  SemaphoreGuard guard(spi_mutex_);
-  if (!guard.take(pdMS_TO_TICKS(5000))) {
-    ESP_LOGE(TAG, "SPI mutex timeout for data transfer of %zu bytes", length);
-    return ESP_ERR_TIMEOUT;
-  }
-  ESP_LOGI(TAG, "transfer_spi_data: starting to send %zu bytes of data", length);
 
-  size_t offset = 0;
+  // Write NEW data (0x13) with the actual display content
-  size_t remaining = length;
+  // This restores the display to show old_buffer_ content
-  gpio_set_level(PIN_DC, 1); // Data mode
+  err = epd_handler_.epd_write_cmd(0x13, transaction_id);
-  while (remaining > 0) {
+  if (err != ESP_OK) {
-    size_t transfer_size = (remaining < DMA_TRANSFER_CHUNK_SIZE) ? remaining : DMA_TRANSFER_CHUNK_SIZE;
+    ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to send new data command: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
-
+    return err;
-    spi_transaction_t t = {};
-    t.length = transfer_size * 8;  // Length in bits
-    t.tx_buffer = data + offset;
-
-    esp_err_t ret = spi_device_polling_transmit(spi_, &t);
-    if (ret != ESP_OK) {
-      ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to send SPI chunk at offset %zu: %s", offset, esp_err_to_name(ret));
-      return ret;
-    }
-
-    remaining -= transfer_size;
-    offset += transfer_size;
-
-    // Yield every 16KB to prevent watchdog timeout
-    if (offset % (16 * 1024) == 0) {
-      ESP_LOGI(TAG, "New data progress: %zu/%zu bytes sent, yielding...", offset, length);
-      vTaskDelay(pdMS_TO_TICKS(1));
-    }
   }
 
-  ESP_LOGI(TAG, "transfer_spi_data: completed sending %zu bytes of data", length);
+  // Send the last displayed content to new SRAM
-  return ESP_OK;
+  err = epd_handler_.transfer_spi_data(old_buffer_, DISPLAY_BUFFER_SIZE, transaction_id);
-}
+  if (err != ESP_OK) {
-
+    ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to send display content to new SRAM: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
-esp_err_t EInkDisplayHandler::begin_transaction_(TickType_t timeout, uint32_t& out_id) {
+    return err;
-  ESP_LOGI(TAG, "begin_transaction_: waiting to obtain transaction mutex");
+  }
-  if (xSemaphoreTake(spi_transaction_mutex_, timeout) != pdTRUE) {
+
-    ESP_LOGE(TAG, "begin_transaction_: transaction mutex timeout");
+  ESP_LOGI(TAG, "Display SRAM restored successfully");
-    return ESP_ERR_TIMEOUT;
-  }
-
-  out_id = ++spi_transaction_id;
-  ESP_LOGI(TAG, "begin_transaction_: transaction mutex obtained");
-  return ESP_OK;
-}
-
-esp_err_t EInkDisplayHandler::end_transaction_(void) {
-  ESP_LOGI(TAG, "end_transaction_: releasing transaction mutex");
-  if (xSemaphoreGive(spi_transaction_mutex_) != pdTRUE) {
-    ESP_LOGE(TAG, "end_transaction_: failed to release transaction mutex");
-    return ESP_FAIL;
-  }
-
-  ESP_LOGI(TAG, "end_transaction_: transaction mutex released");
-  return ESP_OK;
-}
-
-esp_err_t EInkDisplayHandler::wait_for_transaction_end_(TickType_t timeout, uint32_t awaiting_transaction_id, SemaphoreGuard& out_transaction_guard) {
-  // Validate transaction ID if provided
-  if (awaiting_transaction_id != 0 && awaiting_transaction_id != spi_transaction_id) {
-    // Invalid transaction ID
-    ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Invalid transaction ID 0x%08X while waiting, current transaction ID: 0x%08X",
-      awaiting_transaction_id, spi_transaction_id);
-    return ESP_ERR_INVALID_ARG;
-  }
-  SemaphoreGuard transaction_guard(spi_transaction_mutex_);
-  if (awaiting_transaction_id == 0) {
-    // wait for current transaction to complete
-    ESP_LOGV(TAG, "Waiting for current transaction 0x%08X to complete",
-      spi_transaction_id);
-    // take the mutex to ensure no transaction is active
-    if (!transaction_guard.take(timeout)) {
-      ESP_LOGE(TAG, "SPI transaction mutex timeout while waiting for transaction end");
-      return ESP_ERR_TIMEOUT;
-    }
-  }
-  // awaited_transaction_id is valid and matches current transaction ID or 0
-  out_transaction_guard = std::move(transaction_guard);
   return ESP_OK;
 }

main/display/eink_display_handler.h

@@ -5,6 +5,7 @@
 #include "common/semaphore_guard.h"
 #include <vector>
 #include <atomic>
+#include "epd_handler.h"
 
 // Refresh mode configuration
 #define PARTIAL_REFRESH_THRESHOLD 10  // Full refresh every N partial refreshes
@@ -56,71 +57,43 @@ public:
 
   esp_err_t refresh_display(void);
   esp_err_t full_write(const uint8_t* framebuffer, const bool white_basemap = true);
-  esp_err_t partial_refresh(const uint8_t* framebuffer, const RefreshArea& area);
+  esp_err_t partial_refresh(const uint8_t* framebuffer, const RefreshArea& area, const bool is_last_partial_update = true);
   esp_err_t clear_display(void);
   esp_err_t deep_sleep_display(void);
   // Request a full refresh on next flush
   void request_full_refresh(void);
 
-  // Check if display is busy (refreshing)
+  bool is_busy() {
-  bool is_busy(void) const;
+    return epd_handler_.is_busy();
-  void wait_for_idle(void) const;
+  }
 
   esp_lcd_touch_handle_t get_touch_handle() const { return tp_handle_; }
 
-protected:
-  esp_err_t epd_write_cmd(const uint8_t cmd, uint32_t transaction_id);
-  esp_err_t epd_write_data(const uint8_t data, uint32_t transaction_id);
-  esp_err_t epd_write_cmd_with_data(const uint8_t cmd, std::vector<uint8_t>& data, uint32_t transaction_id);
-  esp_err_t transfer_spi_data(const uint8_t* data, const size_t& length, uint32_t transaction_id);
-
 private:
 
   esp_err_t init_display_pins_(void);
-  esp_err_t epd_init_(void); // full fast refresh init
+  esp_err_t epd_init_internal_(uint32_t transaction_id); // full fast refresh init
-  esp_err_t epd_init_partial_(void); // partial refresh init (standalone)
   esp_err_t epd_init_partial_internal_(uint32_t transaction_id); // partial refresh init (within existing transaction)
   esp_err_t init_touch_(void);
-  esp_err_t dangerous_epd_write_cmd_without_lock_(const uint8_t cmd);
-  esp_err_t dangerous_epd_write_data_without_lock_(const uint8_t data);
 
-  esp_err_t begin_transaction_(TickType_t timeout, uint32_t& out_id);
+  // write to the internal draw buffer
-  esp_err_t end_transaction_(void);
+  void write_to_buffer_(const uint8_t* src, const RefreshArea& area);
-  // given a transaction ID, wait for current transaction to complete. The transaction ID will determine if the wait is needed.
+  // write the internal draw buffer to the display's old sram
-  esp_err_t wait_for_transaction_end_(TickType_t timeout, uint32_t awaiting_transaction_id, SemaphoreGuard& out_transaction_guard);
+  esp_err_t refresh_old_buffer_(uint32_t transaction_id);
 
-  friend class TransactionGuard;
 
+  EPDHandler epd_handler_;
   uint32_t partial_refresh_count_ = 0;
   bool force_full_refresh_ = false;
   std::atomic<bool> is_deep_sleep_ { false };
 
-  SemaphoreHandle_t spi_mutex_ = nullptr;
-  SemaphoreHandle_t spi_transaction_mutex_ = nullptr;
   SemaphoreHandle_t refresh_mutex_ = nullptr;
-  uint32_t spi_transaction_id = 0; // For tracking SPI transactions
-  spi_device_handle_t spi_ = nullptr;
   esp_lcd_panel_io_handle_t tp_io_handle_ = nullptr;
   esp_lcd_touch_handle_t tp_handle_ = nullptr;
+
+  // this buffer reflects the current display state (1=black, 0=white)
+  uint8_t* draw_buffer_ = nullptr;
+  uint8_t* old_buffer_ = nullptr;
+  RefreshArea refresh_area_ = { 0, 0, 0, 0 };
 };
 
-
-class TransactionGuard {
-public:
-  TransactionGuard(EInkDisplayHandler& handler, TickType_t timeout = portMAX_DELAY)
-    : handler_(handler) { }
-  ~TransactionGuard() { if (transaction_id_) handler_.end_transaction_(); }
-
-  esp_err_t begin(TickType_t timeout = portMAX_DELAY) {
-    esp_err_t err = handler_.begin_transaction_(timeout, transaction_id_);
-    return err;
-  }
-  uint32_t transaction_id() const { return transaction_id_; }
-  bool is_active() const { return transaction_id_ != 0; }
-private:
-  // delete copy constructor and assignment operator
-  TransactionGuard(const TransactionGuard&) = delete;
-  TransactionGuard& operator=(const TransactionGuard&) = delete;
-  EInkDisplayHandler& handler_;
-  uint32_t transaction_id_ = 0;
-};

main/display/epd_handler.cpp

@@ -0,0 +1,292 @@
+#include "display/epd_handler.h"
+#include "esp_log.h"
+#include "display/constants.h"
+#include "common/constants.h"
+#include "esp_lcd_touch_gt911.h"
+#include <driver/i2c.h>
+#define TAG "EPDHandler"
+
+#define BUSY_ACTIVE_LEVEL   0  // BUSY pin is active low
+#define BUSY_INACTIVE_LEVEL 1
+#define DMA_TRANSFER_CHUNK_SIZE 4096  // 4KB chunk size for DMA transfers
+
+EPDHandler::EPDHandler() {
+  spi_mutex_ = xSemaphoreCreateMutex();
+  if (spi_mutex_ == nullptr) {
+    ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to create SPI mutex");
+  }
+  spi_transaction_mutex_ = xSemaphoreCreateMutex();
+  if (spi_transaction_mutex_ == nullptr) {
+    ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to create SPI transaction mutex");
+  }
+}
+
+EPDHandler::~EPDHandler() {
+  if (spi_mutex_ != nullptr) {
+    vSemaphoreDelete(spi_mutex_);
+  }
+  if (spi_transaction_mutex_ != nullptr) {
+    vSemaphoreDelete(spi_transaction_mutex_);
+  }
+  if (spi_ != nullptr) {
+    spi_bus_remove_device(spi_);
+  }
+}
+
+esp_err_t EPDHandler::init() {
+  esp_err_t err;
+
+  // Initialize SPI bus
+  spi_bus_config_t buscfg = {};
+  buscfg.mosi_io_num = 11;  // MOSI pin
+  buscfg.miso_io_num = -1;  // No MISO for e-paper
+  buscfg.sclk_io_num = 12;  // SCK pin
+  buscfg.quadwp_io_num = -1;
+  buscfg.quadhd_io_num = -1;
+  buscfg.max_transfer_sz = DMA_TRANSFER_CHUNK_SIZE;
+
+  err = spi_bus_initialize(SPI2_HOST, &buscfg, SPI_DMA_CH_AUTO);
+  if (err != ESP_OK) {
+    ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to initialize SPI bus: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
+    return err;
+  }
+
+  // Add SPI device
+  spi_device_interface_config_t devcfg = {};
+  devcfg.clock_speed_hz = 10 * 1000 * 1000;  // 10 MHz
+  devcfg.mode = 0;  // SPI mode 0
+  devcfg.spics_io_num = PIN_CS;
+  devcfg.queue_size = 7;  // Queue size for non-blocking transactions
+  devcfg.pre_cb = nullptr;
+
+  err = spi_bus_add_device(SPI2_HOST, &devcfg, &spi_);
+  if (err != ESP_OK) {
+    ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to add SPI device: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
+    return err;
+  }
+
+  return ESP_OK;
+}
+
+// Check if display is busy (refreshing)
+bool EPDHandler::is_busy(void) const {
+  return gpio_get_level(PIN_BUSY) != BUSY_ACTIVE_LEVEL;  // BUSY is active LOW
+}
+void EPDHandler::wait_for_idle(void) const {
+  ESP_LOGI(TAG, "Waiting for display ready (BUSY pin)...");
+  int initial_level = gpio_get_level(PIN_BUSY);
+  ESP_LOGI(TAG, "Initial BUSY pin level: %d (0=BUSY, 1=FREE)", initial_level);
+
+  // If already free, no need to wait
+  if (initial_level == BUSY_INACTIVE_LEVEL) {
+    ESP_LOGI(TAG, "Display already ready (BUSY pin = 1)");
+    return;
+  }
+  while (gpio_get_level(PIN_BUSY) != BUSY_INACTIVE_LEVEL) {
+    vTaskDelay(pdMS_TO_TICKS(10));
+  }
+  ESP_LOGI(TAG, "Display is now ready (BUSY pin = 1)");
+}
+
+esp_err_t EPDHandler::epd_write_cmd(const uint8_t cmd, uint32_t transaction_id) {
+  ESP_LOGI(TAG, "epd_write_cmd: waiting to send 0x%02X", cmd);
+
+  SemaphoreGuard transaction_guard(spi_transaction_mutex_);
+  esp_err_t err =
+    wait_for_transaction_end_(pdMS_TO_TICKS(5000), transaction_id, transaction_guard);
+  if (err != ESP_OK) {
+    ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to wait for previous transaction end before sending cmd 0x%02X: %s",
+      cmd, esp_err_to_name(err));
+    return err;
+  }
+
+  SemaphoreGuard guard(spi_mutex_);
+  if (!guard.take(pdMS_TO_TICKS(5000))) {
+    ESP_LOGE(TAG, "SPI mutex timeout for cmd 0x%02X", cmd);
+    return ESP_ERR_TIMEOUT;
+  }
+  err = dangerous_epd_write_cmd_without_lock_(cmd);
+  ESP_LOGI(TAG, "epd_write_cmd: 0x%02X done", cmd);
+  return err;
+}
+
+esp_err_t EPDHandler::epd_write_data(const uint8_t data, uint32_t transaction_id) {
+  ESP_LOGI(TAG, "epd_write_data: waiting to send 0x%02X", data);
+  SemaphoreGuard transaction_guard(spi_transaction_mutex_);
+  esp_err_t err =
+    wait_for_transaction_end_(pdMS_TO_TICKS(5000), transaction_id, transaction_guard);
+  if (err != ESP_OK) {
+    ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to wait for previous transaction end before sending data 0x%02X: %s",
+      data, esp_err_to_name(err));
+    return err;
+  }
+  SemaphoreGuard guard(spi_mutex_);
+  if (!guard.take(pdMS_TO_TICKS(5000))) {
+    ESP_LOGE(TAG, "SPI mutex timeout for data 0x%02X", data);
+    return ESP_ERR_TIMEOUT;
+  }
+  err = dangerous_epd_write_data_without_lock_(data);
+  ESP_LOGI(TAG, "epd_write_data: 0x%02X done", data);
+  return err;
+}
+
+esp_err_t EPDHandler::epd_write_cmd_with_data(const uint8_t cmd, std::vector<uint8_t>& data, uint32_t transaction_id) {
+  const size_t data_len = data.size();
+  ESP_LOGI(TAG, "epd_write_cmd_with_data: waiting to send cmd 0x%02X with %u bytes of data", cmd, data_len);
+
+  SemaphoreGuard transaction_guard(spi_transaction_mutex_);
+  esp_err_t err =
+    wait_for_transaction_end_(pdMS_TO_TICKS(5000), transaction_id, transaction_guard);
+  if (err != ESP_OK) {
+    ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to wait for previous transaction end before sending cmd 0x%02X: %s, with data",
+      cmd, esp_err_to_name(err));
+    return err;
+  }
+
+  SemaphoreGuard guard(spi_mutex_);
+  if (!guard.take(pdMS_TO_TICKS(5000))) {
+    ESP_LOGE(TAG, "SPI mutex timeout for cmd with data 0x%02X", cmd);
+    return ESP_ERR_TIMEOUT;
+  }
+  err = dangerous_epd_write_cmd_without_lock_(cmd);
+  if (err != ESP_OK) {
+    return err;
+  };
+  for (size_t i = 0; i < data_len; ++i) {
+    err = dangerous_epd_write_data_without_lock_(data[i]);
+    if (err != ESP_OK) {
+      return err;
+    }
+  }
+  ESP_LOGI(TAG, "epd_write_cmd_with_data: cmd 0x%02X with %u bytes of data done", cmd, data_len);
+  return ESP_OK;
+}
+
+
+esp_err_t EPDHandler::dangerous_epd_write_cmd_without_lock_(const uint8_t cmd) {
+  ESP_LOGI(TAG, "dangerous_epd_write_cmd_without_lock_: sending 0x%02X", cmd);
+  gpio_set_level(PIN_DC, 0); // Command mode
+  spi_transaction_t t {};
+  t.length = 8;t.tx_buffer = &cmd;
+  esp_err_t err = spi_device_polling_transmit(spi_, &t);
+  if (err != ESP_OK) {
+    ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to send data 0x%02X", cmd);
+  } else {
+    ESP_LOGI(TAG, "dangerous_epd_write_cmd_without_lock_: 0x%02X sent", cmd);
+  }
+  return err;
+}
+
+esp_err_t EPDHandler::dangerous_epd_write_data_without_lock_(const uint8_t data) {
+  ESP_LOGI(TAG, "dangerous_epd_write_data_without_lock_: sending 0x%02X", data);
+  gpio_set_level(PIN_DC, 1); // Data mode
+  spi_transaction_t t = { };
+  t.length = 8; t.tx_buffer = &data;
+  esp_err_t err = spi_device_polling_transmit(spi_, &t);
+  if (err != ESP_OK) {
+    ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to send data 0x%02X", data);
+  } else {
+    ESP_LOGI(TAG, "dangerous_epd_write_data_without_lock_: 0x%02X sent", data);
+  }
+  return err;
+}
+
+esp_err_t EPDHandler::transfer_spi_data(const uint8_t* data, const size_t& length, uint32_t transaction_id) {
+  ESP_LOGI(TAG, "transfer_spi_data: waiting to send %zu bytes of data", length);
+
+  SemaphoreGuard transaction_guard(spi_transaction_mutex_);
+  esp_err_t err =
+    wait_for_transaction_end_(pdMS_TO_TICKS(5000), transaction_id, transaction_guard);
+  if (err != ESP_OK) {
+    ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to wait for previous transaction end before sending data of %zu bytes: %s",
+      length, esp_err_to_name(err));
+    return err;
+  }
+  SemaphoreGuard guard(spi_mutex_);
+  if (!guard.take(pdMS_TO_TICKS(5000))) {
+    ESP_LOGE(TAG, "SPI mutex timeout for data transfer of %zu bytes", length);
+    return ESP_ERR_TIMEOUT;
+  }
+  ESP_LOGI(TAG, "transfer_spi_data: starting to send %zu bytes of data", length);
+
+  size_t offset = 0;
+  size_t remaining = length;
+  gpio_set_level(PIN_DC, 1); // Data mode
+  while (remaining > 0) {
+    size_t transfer_size = (remaining < DMA_TRANSFER_CHUNK_SIZE) ? remaining : DMA_TRANSFER_CHUNK_SIZE;
+
+    spi_transaction_t t = {};
+    t.length = transfer_size * 8;  // Length in bits
+    t.tx_buffer = data + offset;
+
+    esp_err_t ret = spi_device_polling_transmit(spi_, &t);
+    if (ret != ESP_OK) {
+      ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to send SPI chunk at offset %zu: %s", offset, esp_err_to_name(ret));
+      if (ret == ESP_ERR_NO_MEM) {
+        ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Current free heap size: %u bytes", esp_get_free_heap_size());
+        ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Current free DMA-capable memory size: %u bytes",
+          heap_caps_get_free_size(MALLOC_CAP_DMA));
+      }
+      return ret;
+    }
+
+    remaining -= transfer_size;
+    offset += transfer_size;
+
+    // Yield every 16KB to prevent watchdog timeout
+    if (offset % (16 * 1024) == 0) {
+      ESP_LOGI(TAG, "New data progress: %zu/%zu bytes sent, yielding...", offset, length);
+      vTaskDelay(pdMS_TO_TICKS(1));
+    }
+  }
+
+  ESP_LOGI(TAG, "transfer_spi_data: completed sending %zu bytes of data", length);
+  return ESP_OK;
+}
+
+esp_err_t EPDHandler::begin_transaction_(TickType_t timeout, uint32_t& out_id) {
+  ESP_LOGI(TAG, "begin_transaction_: waiting to obtain transaction mutex");
+  if (xSemaphoreTake(spi_transaction_mutex_, timeout) != pdTRUE) {
+    ESP_LOGE(TAG, "begin_transaction_: transaction mutex timeout");
+    return ESP_ERR_TIMEOUT;
+  }
+
+  out_id = ++spi_transaction_id;
+  ESP_LOGI(TAG, "begin_transaction_: transaction mutex obtained");
+  return ESP_OK;
+}
+
+esp_err_t EPDHandler::end_transaction_(void) {
+  ESP_LOGI(TAG, "end_transaction_: releasing transaction mutex");
+  if (xSemaphoreGive(spi_transaction_mutex_) != pdTRUE) {
+    ESP_LOGE(TAG, "end_transaction_: failed to release transaction mutex");
+    return ESP_FAIL;
+  }
+
+  ESP_LOGI(TAG, "end_transaction_: transaction mutex released");
+  return ESP_OK;
+}
+
+esp_err_t EPDHandler::wait_for_transaction_end_(TickType_t timeout, uint32_t awaiting_transaction_id, SemaphoreGuard& out_transaction_guard) {
+  // Validate transaction ID if provided
+  if (awaiting_transaction_id != 0 && awaiting_transaction_id != spi_transaction_id) {
+    // Invalid transaction ID
+    ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Invalid transaction ID 0x%08X while waiting, current transaction ID: 0x%08X",
+      awaiting_transaction_id, spi_transaction_id);
+    return ESP_ERR_INVALID_ARG;
+  }
+  SemaphoreGuard transaction_guard(spi_transaction_mutex_);
+  if (awaiting_transaction_id == 0) {
+    // wait for current transaction to complete
+    ESP_LOGV(TAG, "Waiting for current transaction 0x%08X to complete",
+      spi_transaction_id);
+    // take the mutex to ensure no transaction is active
+    if (!transaction_guard.take(timeout)) {
+      ESP_LOGE(TAG, "SPI transaction mutex timeout while waiting for transaction end");
+      return ESP_ERR_TIMEOUT;
+    }
+  }
+  // awaited_transaction_id is valid and matches current transaction ID or 0
+  out_transaction_guard = std::move(transaction_guard);
+  return ESP_OK;
+}

main/display/epd_handler.h

@@ -0,0 +1,41 @@
+#pragma once
+#include "freertos/FreeRTOS.h"
+#include "freertos/semphr.h"
+#include "driver/spi_master.h"
+#include "common/semaphore_guard.h"
+#include <vector>
+#include "display/transaction_guard.h"
+
+class EPDHandler : public WithTransaction {
+public:
+  EPDHandler();
+  ~EPDHandler();
+  esp_err_t init();
+
+  esp_err_t epd_write_cmd(const uint8_t cmd, uint32_t transaction_id);
+  esp_err_t epd_write_data(const uint8_t data, uint32_t transaction_id);
+  esp_err_t epd_write_cmd_with_data(const uint8_t cmd, std::vector<uint8_t>& data, uint32_t transaction_id);
+  esp_err_t transfer_spi_data(const uint8_t* data, const size_t& length, uint32_t transaction_id);
+
+  bool is_busy(void) const;
+  void wait_for_idle(void) const;
+
+private:
+
+  esp_err_t dangerous_epd_write_cmd_without_lock_(const uint8_t cmd);
+  esp_err_t dangerous_epd_write_data_without_lock_(const uint8_t data);
+
+  esp_err_t begin_transaction_(TickType_t timeout, uint32_t& out_id) override;
+  esp_err_t end_transaction_(void) override;
+  // given a transaction ID, wait for current transaction to complete. The transaction ID will determine if the wait is needed.
+  esp_err_t wait_for_transaction_end_(TickType_t timeout, uint32_t awaiting_transaction_id, SemaphoreGuard& out_transaction_guard);
+
+  spi_device_handle_t spi_ = nullptr;
+
+  SemaphoreHandle_t spi_mutex_ = nullptr;
+  SemaphoreHandle_t spi_transaction_mutex_ = nullptr;
+
+  uint32_t spi_transaction_id = 0; // For tracking SPI transactions
+
+  friend class TransactionGuard;
+};

main/display/lvgl_handler.cpp

@@ -11,12 +11,7 @@
 
 LVGLHandler::LVGLHandler(
   std::unique_ptr<EInkDisplayHandler> display_handler_in
-) : display_handler_(std::move(display_handler_in)) {
+) : display_handler_(std::move(display_handler_in)) { }
-  lvgl_mutex_ = xSemaphoreCreateMutex();
-  if (lvgl_mutex_ == nullptr) {
-    ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to create LVGL mutex");
-  }
-}
 
 LVGLHandler::~LVGLHandler() {
   if (lvgl_display_ != nullptr) {
@@ -31,14 +26,6 @@ LVGLHandler::~LVGLHandler() {
     lv_draw_buf_destroy(lvgl_draw_buf_);
     lvgl_draw_buf_ = nullptr;
   }
-  if (framebuffer_ != nullptr) {
-    heap_caps_free(framebuffer_);
-    framebuffer_ = nullptr;
-  }
-  if (lvgl_mutex_ != nullptr) {
-    vSemaphoreDelete(lvgl_mutex_);
-    lvgl_mutex_ = nullptr;
-  }
 }
 
 esp_err_t LVGLHandler::initLVGL(EventGroupHandle_t system_event_group) {
@@ -103,101 +90,63 @@ void LVGLHandler::flush_cb_(lv_display_t* disp, const lv_area_t* area, uint8_t*
     return;
   }
   LVGLHandler* handler = static_cast<LVGLHandler*>(lv_display_get_user_data(disp));
-  if (handler == nullptr || handler->display_handler_ == nullptr || handler->framebuffer_ == nullptr) {
+  if (handler == nullptr || handler->display_handler_ == nullptr) {
-    ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Invalid handler or framebuffer in flush callback");
+    ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Invalid handler in flush callback");
     lv_display_flush_ready(disp);
     return;
   }
   uint8_t* pixel_data = px_map + 8; // Skip palette
   //
   ESP_LOGI(TAG, "Flush callback: x1=%d, y1=%d, x2=%d, y2=%d", area->x1, area->y1, area->x2, area->y2);
-  // take mutex
-  SemaphoreGuard guard(handler->lvgl_mutex_);
-  if (!guard.take(pdMS_TO_TICKS(5000))) {
-    ESP_LOGE(TAG, "LVGL mutex timeout in flush callback");
-    lv_display_flush_ready(disp);
-    return;
-  }
 
   // copy data to framebuffer
   int32_t area_w = lv_area_get_width(area);
   int32_t area_h = lv_area_get_height(area);
   if (area->x1 == 0 && area->y1 == 0 && area_w == DISPLAY_WIDTH && area_h == DISPLAY_HEIGHT) {
-    // Check if content actually changed before triggering expensive e-ink refresh
+    // revert the pixel data for e-ink (LVGL: 1=white, 0=black; E-Ink: 1=black, 0=white)
-    if (memcmp(handler->framebuffer_, pixel_data, DISPLAY_BUFFER_SIZE) == 0) {
-      ESP_LOGD(TAG, "Full screen flush with no changes - skipping e-ink refresh");
-      lv_display_flush_ready(disp);
-      return;
-    }
-    ESP_LOGI(TAG, "Full screen update");
-    memcpy(handler->framebuffer_, pixel_data, DISPLAY_BUFFER_SIZE);
-    // invert the framebuffer for e-ink display
     for (size_t i = 0; i < DISPLAY_BUFFER_SIZE; ++i) {
-      handler->framebuffer_[i] = ~handler->framebuffer_[i];
+      pixel_data[i] = ~pixel_data[i];
     }
-    // request full refresh
+    esp_err_t err = handler->display_handler_->full_write(
-    esp_err_t err = handler->display_handler_->full_write(handler->framebuffer_, true);
+      pixel_data,
+      true  // white basemap
+    );
     if (err != ESP_OK) {
       ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Full refresh request failed: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
     }
   } else {
     // partial update
     ESP_LOGI(TAG, "Partial update: x1=%d, y1=%d, w=%d, h=%d", area->x1, area->y1, area_w, area_h);
-    // update the framebuffer with the partial data
+
-    for (int32_t row = 0; row < area_h; ++row) {
+    // Prepare partial buffer
-      int32_t fb_y = area->y1 + row;
+    const uint32_t area_width_bytes = (area->x2 - area->x1 + 1) / 8;
-      int32_t fb_x_byte_start = area->x1 / 8;
+    const uint32_t area_height = area->y2 - area->y1 + 1;
-      int32_t fb_x_byte_end = area->x2 / 8;
+    const size_t partial_buffer_size = area_width_bytes * area_height;
-      uint8_t* fb_ptr = &handler->framebuffer_[fb_y * (DISPLAY_WIDTH / 8) + fb_x_byte_start];
+    uint8_t* partial_buffer = new uint8_t[partial_buffer_size];
-      const uint8_t* src_ptr = &pixel_data[row * (area_w / 8)];
+    if (partial_buffer == nullptr) {
-      // invert the partial framebuffer data for e-ink display
+      ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to allocate partial buffer for flush callback");
-      for (int32_t i = 0; i < (fb_x_byte_end - fb_x_byte_start + 1); ++i) {
+      lv_display_flush_ready(disp);
-        fb_ptr[i] = ~src_ptr[i];
+      return;
+    }
+    // Copy pixel data to partial buffer and invert for e-ink
+    for (int32_t row = 0; row < area_height; ++row) {
+      for (int32_t col = 0; col < area_width_bytes; ++col) {
+        size_t src_index = row * area_width_bytes + col;
+        partial_buffer[src_index] = ~pixel_data[src_index];
       }
     }
-    // update the refresh area
-    handler->refresh_area_.expand_to_include(area->x1, area->y1, area->x2, area->y2);
-    //
 
-    if (lv_display_flush_is_last(disp) && !handler->refresh_area_.is_empty()) {
+    esp_err_t err = handler->display_handler_->partial_refresh(partial_buffer,
-      ESP_LOGI(TAG, "Last flush in batch - performing partial refresh");
+      RefreshArea {
-      ESP_LOGI(TAG, "Refresh area: x1=%d, y1=%d, x2=%d, y2=%d",
+        area->x1,
-        handler->refresh_area_.x1, handler->refresh_area_.y1,
+        area->y1,
-        handler->refresh_area_.x2, handler->refresh_area_.y2);
+        area->x2,
-      // copy the area to refresh
+        area->y2
-      uint8_t* partial_buffer = new uint8_t[handler->refresh_area_.area() / 8];
+      }, lv_display_flush_is_last(disp));
-      if (partial_buffer == nullptr) {
+    delete[] partial_buffer;
-        ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to allocate partial buffer for refresh");
-        lv_display_flush_ready(disp);
-        return;
-      }
-      // loop the refresh area and copy data
-      uint32_t x1 = handler->refresh_area_.x1;
-      uint32_t x2 = handler->refresh_area_.x2;
-      uint32_t y1 = handler->refresh_area_.y1;
-      uint32_t y2 = handler->refresh_area_.y2;
-      uint32_t height = y2 - y1 + 1;
-      uint32_t width = x2 - x1 + 1;
 
-      for (uint32_t row = 0; row < height; ++row) {
+    if (err != ESP_OK) {
-        uint32_t fb_y = y1 + row;
+      ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Partial refresh request failed: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
-        uint32_t fb_x_byte_start = x1 / 8;
-        uint32_t fb_x_byte_end = x2 / 8;
-        uint8_t* fb_ptr = &handler->framebuffer_[fb_y * (DISPLAY_WIDTH / 8) + fb_x_byte_start];
-        uint8_t* dest_ptr = &partial_buffer[row * (width / 8)];
-        for (uint32_t i = 0; i < (fb_x_byte_end - fb_x_byte_start + 1); ++i) {
-          dest_ptr[i] = ~fb_ptr[i];
-        }
-      }
-
-      esp_err_t err = handler->display_handler_->partial_refresh(partial_buffer,
-        handler->refresh_area_);
-      delete[] partial_buffer;
-
-      if (err != ESP_OK) {
-        ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Partial refresh request failed: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
-      }
-      handler->refresh_area_.reset();
     }
   }
   //
@@ -234,7 +183,7 @@ void LVGLHandler::touch_read_cb_(lv_indev_t* indev, lv_indev_data_t* data) {
     esp_lcd_touch_get_data(tp_handle, point_data, &touch_cnt, 1);
 
     if (touch_cnt > 0) {
-      ESP_LOGI(TAG, "Touch data read successfully: x=%d, y=%d", point_data[0].x, point_data[0].y);
+      // ESP_LOGI(TAG, "Touch data read successfully: x=%d, y=%d", point_data[0].x, point_data[0].y);
       data->point.x = point_data[0].x;
       data->point.y = point_data[0].y;
       data->state = LV_INDEV_STATE_PRESSED;
@@ -268,31 +217,10 @@ esp_err_t LVGLHandler::initLVGLDisplay_() {
     return ESP_FAIL;
   }
 
-  // set framebuffer
-  framebuffer_ = (uint8_t*)heap_caps_malloc(LVGL_BUFFER_SIZE, MALLOC_CAP_SPIRAM);
-  if (framebuffer_ != nullptr) {
-    framebuffer_in_psram_ = true;
-    ESP_LOGI(TAG, "Framebuffer allocated in PSRAM (%zu bytes)", LVGL_BUFFER_SIZE);
-  } else {
-    ESP_LOGW(TAG, "PSRAM not available, allocating framebuffer in internal RAM");
-    framebuffer_ = (uint8_t*)heap_caps_malloc(LVGL_BUFFER_SIZE, MALLOC_CAP_INTERNAL);
-    framebuffer_in_psram_ = false;
-    if (framebuffer_ == nullptr) {
-      ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to allocate framebuffer");
-      lv_display_delete(lvgl_display_);
-      lvgl_display_ = nullptr;
-      lvgl_port_unlock();
-      return ESP_FAIL;
-    }
-    ESP_LOGI(TAG, "Framebuffer allocated in internal RAM (%zu bytes)", LVGL_BUFFER_SIZE);
-  }
-  memset(framebuffer_, 0xFF, LVGL_BUFFER_SIZE);  // Initialize to white
   // Create a draw buffer covering the entire display
   lvgl_draw_buf_ = lv_draw_buf_create(DISPLAY_WIDTH, DISPLAY_HEIGHT, LV_COLOR_FORMAT_I1, LV_STRIDE_AUTO);
   if (lvgl_draw_buf_ == nullptr) {
     ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to create LVGL draw buffer");
-    heap_caps_free(framebuffer_);
-    framebuffer_ = nullptr;
     lv_display_delete(lvgl_display_);
     lvgl_display_ = nullptr;
     lvgl_port_unlock();

main/display/lvgl_handler.h

@@ -31,10 +31,4 @@ private:
   lv_display_t* lvgl_display_ = nullptr;
   lv_indev_t* lvgl_touch_indev_ = nullptr;
   lv_draw_buf_t* lvgl_draw_buf_ = nullptr;
-  uint8_t* framebuffer_ = nullptr;
-  bool framebuffer_in_psram_ = false;
-  RefreshArea refresh_area_ = { 0, 0, 0, 0 };
-
-
-  SemaphoreHandle_t lvgl_mutex_ = nullptr;
 };

main/display/transaction_guard.h

@@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
+#pragma once
+#include "freertos/FreeRTOS.h"
+#include "freertos/semphr.h"
+#include <esp_err.h>
+#include <type_traits>
+
+class WithTransaction {
+protected:
+  virtual esp_err_t end_transaction_() = 0;
+  virtual esp_err_t begin_transaction_(TickType_t timeout, uint32_t& out_id) = 0;
+
+  friend class TransactionGuard;
+};
+
+class TransactionGuard {
+public:
+  TransactionGuard(WithTransaction& handler, TickType_t timeout = portMAX_DELAY)
+    : handler_(handler) { }
+  ~TransactionGuard() { if (transaction_id_) handler_.end_transaction_(); }
+
+  esp_err_t begin(TickType_t timeout = portMAX_DELAY) {
+    esp_err_t err = handler_.begin_transaction_(timeout, transaction_id_);
+    return err;
+  }
+  uint32_t transaction_id() const { return transaction_id_; }
+  bool is_active() const { return transaction_id_ != 0; }
+private:
+  // delete copy constructor and assignment operator
+  TransactionGuard(const TransactionGuard&) = delete;
+  TransactionGuard& operator=(const TransactionGuard&) = delete;
+  WithTransaction& handler_;
+  uint32_t transaction_id_ = 0;
+};

main/info/info.cpp

@@ -23,7 +23,8 @@ void display_chip_info() {
     (chip_info.features & CHIP_FEATURE_BLE) ? "BLE" : "",
     (chip_info.features & CHIP_FEATURE_IEEE802154) ? ", 802.15.4 (Zigbee/Thread), " : "",
     // psram
-    (chip_info.features & CHIP_FEATURE_EMB_PSRAM) ? "with embedded PSRAM, " : "");
+    (chip_info.features & CHIP_FEATURE_EMB_PSRAM) ? "with embedded PSRAM, " : ""
+  );
 
   unsigned major_rev = chip_info.revision / 100;
   unsigned minor_rev = chip_info.revision % 100;
@@ -39,5 +40,8 @@ void display_chip_info() {
   printf("Minimum free heap size: %" PRIu32 " bytes\n", esp_get_minimum_free_heap_size());
   // psram
   printf("PSRAM size: %u bytes\n", esp_psram_get_size());
+  // dma size
+  printf("DMA-capable memory size: %u bytes\n", heap_caps_get_free_size(MALLOC_CAP_DMA));
+  printf("DMA-capable internal memory size: %u bytes\n", heap_caps_get_free_size(MALLOC_CAP_DMA | MALLOC_CAP_INTERNAL));
 
 }

main/main.cpp

@@ -44,218 +44,6 @@ void init_queues(
 
 
 
-void EInk_Checkerboard(
-  EInkDisplayHandler* display_handler
-) {
-  struct CheckerboardTaskParams {
-    EInkDisplayHandler* display_handler;
-  };
-  auto checkerboard_task_fn = [](void* pvParameters) {
-    CheckerboardTaskParams* params = static_cast<CheckerboardTaskParams*>(pvParameters);
-    if (params != nullptr && params->display_handler != nullptr) {
-      // Add this task to the watchdog timer
-      esp_err_t wdt_err = esp_task_wdt_add(NULL);
-      if (wdt_err != ESP_OK) {
-        ESP_LOGW(TAG, "Failed to add checkerboard task to watchdog: %s", esp_err_to_name(wdt_err));
-      }
-
-      EInkDisplayHandler* display_handler = params->display_handler;
-      const size_t DISPLAY_BUFFER_SIZE = DISPLAY_WIDTH * DISPLAY_HEIGHT / 8;
-      uint8_t* framebuffer = new uint8_t[DISPLAY_BUFFER_SIZE];
-      if (framebuffer == nullptr) {
-        ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to allocate framebuffer for checkerboard task");
-        if (wdt_err == ESP_OK) {
-          esp_task_wdt_delete(NULL);
-        }
-        vTaskDelete(NULL);
-        return;
-      }
-      // Create checkerboard pattern
-      for (size_t y = 0; y < DISPLAY_HEIGHT; y++) {
-        for (size_t x = 0; x < DISPLAY_WIDTH; x++) {
-          size_t byte_index = (y * DISPLAY_WIDTH + x) / 8;
-          size_t bit_index = 7 - (x % 8);
-          bool is_white = ((x / 20) % 2) == ((y / 20) % 2);
-          if (is_white) {
-            framebuffer[byte_index] |= (1 << bit_index); // Set bit to 1 for white
-          } else {
-            framebuffer[byte_index] &= ~(1 << bit_index); // Clear bit to 0 for black
-          }
-        }
-        // Yield and reset watchdog periodically
-        const size_t YIELD_INTERVAL = 16;
-        if (y % YIELD_INTERVAL == 0) {
-          if (wdt_err == ESP_OK) {
-            esp_task_wdt_reset();
-          }
-          vTaskDelay(1 / portTICK_PERIOD_MS);
-          // partial refresh to show progress
-          int32_t y_start = static_cast<int32_t>((y >= YIELD_INTERVAL - 1) ? (y - (YIELD_INTERVAL - 1)) : 0);
-          int32_t y_end = static_cast<int32_t>(y);
-          // get the partial framebuffer for this area
-          uint8_t* partial_framebuffer = &framebuffer[y_start * (DISPLAY_WIDTH / 8)];
-          esp_err_t err = display_handler->partial_refresh(partial_framebuffer, RefreshArea { 0, y_start, DISPLAY_WIDTH - 1, y_end });
-          if (err != ESP_OK) {
-            ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Partial refresh failed at y=%d: %s", y, esp_err_to_name(err));
-          }
-          // wait for 4 seconds to prevent spamming the display
-          // vTaskDelay(2000 / portTICK_PERIOD_MS);
-        }
-      }
-      // Perform full write to display
-      // esp_err_t err = display_handler->full_write(framebuffer);
-      // if (err != ESP_OK) {
-      //   ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Checkerboard full write failed: %s", esp_err_to_name(err));
-      // } else {
-      //   ESP_LOGI(TAG, "Checkerboard pattern displayed successfully.");
-      // }
-      delete[] framebuffer;
-
-      // Remove task from watchdog before deletion
-      if (wdt_err == ESP_OK) {
-        esp_task_wdt_delete(NULL);
-      }
-    } else {
-      ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Invalid parameters for checkerboard task");
-    }
-    vTaskDelete(NULL);
-    };
-  CheckerboardTaskParams* checker_params = new CheckerboardTaskParams();
-  checker_params->display_handler = display_handler;
-  BaseType_t res = xTaskCreate(
-    checkerboard_task_fn,
-    "checkerboard_task",
-    8192,
-    static_cast<void*>(checker_params),
-    tskIDLE_PRIORITY + 1,
-    NULL
-  );
-
-  if (res != pdPASS) {
-    ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to create checkerboard task");
-    delete checker_params;
-  }
-}
-
-void LVGL_Checkerboard(
-  LVGLHandler* lvgl_handler
-) {
-  struct CheckerboardTaskParams {
-    LVGLHandler* lvgl_handler;
-  };
-  auto checkerboard_task_fn = [](void* pvParameters) {
-    CheckerboardTaskParams* params = static_cast<CheckerboardTaskParams*>(pvParameters);
-    if (params == nullptr || params->lvgl_handler == nullptr) {
-      ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Invalid parameters for LVGL checkerboard task");
-      delete params;
-      vTaskDelete(NULL);
-      return;
-    }
-    auto* handler = static_cast<LVGLHandler*>(params->lvgl_handler);
-
-    // Add safety checks
-    if (!handler) {
-      ESP_LOGE("LVGL", "Handler is null!");
-      delete params;
-      vTaskDelete(NULL);
-      return;
-    }
-
-    ESP_LOGI("HEAP", "Free: %d", esp_get_free_heap_size());
-
-    // Wait for LVGL system to fully initialize
-    vTaskDelay(pdMS_TO_TICKS(200));
-
-    // Acquire LVGL lock with proper timeout
-    if (!lvgl_port_lock(pdMS_TO_TICKS(5000))) {
-      ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to acquire LVGL lock for checkerboard");
-      delete params;
-      vTaskDelete(NULL);
-      return;
-    }
-
-    // Verify LVGL is properly initialized
-    if (lv_display_get_default() == nullptr) {
-      ESP_LOGE(TAG, "LVGL default display not available");
-      lvgl_port_unlock();
-      delete params;
-      vTaskDelete(NULL);
-      return;
-    }
-
-    // Create LVGL objects for checkerboard
-    lv_obj_t* scr = lv_scr_act();
-    if (scr == nullptr) {
-      ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to get active LVGL screen");
-      lvgl_port_unlock();
-      delete params;
-      vTaskDelete(NULL);
-      return;
-    }
-    lv_obj_t* checkerboard = lv_obj_create(scr);
-    if (checkerboard == nullptr) {
-      ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to create LVGL checkerboard object");
-      lvgl_port_unlock();
-      delete params;
-      vTaskDelete(NULL);
-      return;
-    }
-    lv_obj_set_size(checkerboard, DISPLAY_WIDTH, DISPLAY_HEIGHT);
-    // remove border and padding
-    lv_obj_set_style_pad_all(checkerboard, 0, 0);
-    lv_obj_set_style_border_width(checkerboard, 0, 0);
-    const int CELL_SIZE = 40;
-    lvgl_port_unlock();
-    // Create checkerboard pattern using LVGL
-    for (int y = 0; y < DISPLAY_HEIGHT; y += CELL_SIZE) {
-      lvgl_port_lock(pdMS_TO_TICKS(1000));
-      for (int x = 0; x < DISPLAY_WIDTH; x += CELL_SIZE) {
-        lv_color_t color = (((x / CELL_SIZE) % 2) == ((y / CELL_SIZE) % 2)) ? lv_color_hex(0xFFFFFF) : lv_color_hex(0x000000);
-        lv_obj_t* cell = lv_obj_create(checkerboard);
-        if (cell == nullptr) {
-          ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to create LVGL checkerboard cell");
-          lvgl_port_unlock();
-          continue;
-        }
-        lv_obj_set_size(cell, CELL_SIZE, CELL_SIZE);
-        lv_obj_set_style_bg_color(cell, color, 0);
-        lv_obj_set_pos(cell, x, y);
-        // remove border and padding
-        lv_obj_set_style_pad_all(cell, 0, 0);
-        lv_obj_set_style_border_width(cell, 0, 0);
-        lv_obj_t* label = lv_label_create(cell);
-        if (label != nullptr) {
-          lv_label_set_text_fmt(label, "(%d,%d)", x, y);
-          lv_obj_center(label);
-        }
-      }
-      lvgl_port_unlock();
-      // Yield to allow LVGL to process rendering
-      vTaskDelay(5000 / portTICK_PERIOD_MS);
-    }
-
-
-
-    ESP_LOGI(TAG, "LVGL Checkerboard pattern displayed successfully.");
-    delete params;
-    vTaskDelete(NULL);
-    };
-  CheckerboardTaskParams* checker_params = new CheckerboardTaskParams();
-  checker_params->lvgl_handler = lvgl_handler;
-  BaseType_t res = xTaskCreate(
-    checkerboard_task_fn,
-    "lvgl_checkerboard_task",
-    8192,
-    static_cast<void*>(checker_params),
-    tskIDLE_PRIORITY + 1,
-    NULL
-  );
-  if (res != pdPASS) {
-    ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to create LVGL checkerboard task");
-    delete checker_params;
-  }
-}
-
 
 void app_main(void) {
   display_chip_info();
@@ -315,36 +103,60 @@ void app_main(void) {
   // Allow LVGL system to stabilize before creating objects
   vTaskDelay(pdMS_TO_TICKS(100));
 
-  // Show checkerboard pattern on display for testing
+  // Create main screen and button for random rectangle demo
-  // EInk_Checkerboard(display_handler);
+  lv_obj_t* scr = lv_scr_act();
-  LVGL_Checkerboard(&lvgl_handler);
 
-  // Register apps with AppRegistry by creating their descriptors
+  // Create a button
-  // Each descriptor will create and register the app instance
+  lv_obj_t* btn = lv_btn_create(scr);
-  // DemoAppDescriptor* demo_descriptor = new DemoAppDescriptor();
+  lv_obj_set_size(btn, 200, 60);
-  // ShutdownAppDescriptor* shutdown_descriptor = new ShutdownAppDescriptor();
+  lv_obj_align(btn, LV_ALIGN_TOP_MID, 0, 20);
-  // DiscordAppDescriptor::instance(); // Use singleton pattern for Discord app
+  lv_obj_set_style_border_width(btn, 2, 0);
-  // MtrAppDescriptor* mtr_descriptor = new MtrAppDescriptor();
+  lv_obj_set_style_border_color(btn, lv_color_make(0, 0, 0), 0);
 
-  // Pass network handler to MtrApp so it can fetch arrival data
+  // Add label to button
-  // MtrApp* mtr_app = dynamic_cast<MtrApp*>(mtr_descriptor->get_app_instance());
+  lv_obj_t* label = lv_label_create(btn);
-  // if (mtr_app) {
+  lv_label_set_text(label, "Create Random Rect");
-  //   mtr_app->set_network_handler(network_handler);
+  lv_obj_center(label);
-  // }
+  lv_obj_set_style_text_color(label, lv_color_make(0, 0, 0), 0);
 
-  // ESP_LOGI(TAG, "Apps registered with AppRegistry\n");
+  // Event handler for button - creates random rectangles
+  auto btn_event_cb = [](lv_event_t* e) {
+    lv_obj_t* scr = lv_scr_act();
 
-  // Initialize UI Handler (will render app icons from registry)
+    // Create a random rectangle
-  // UIHandler ui_handler;
+    lv_obj_t* rect = lv_obj_create(scr);
-  // if (ui_handler.init() != ESP_OK) {
-  //   ESP_LOGE(TAG, "Failed to initialize UI handler");
-  //   vTaskDelay(5000 / portTICK_PERIOD_MS);
-  //   return esp_restart();
-  // }
-  // ESP_LOGI(TAG, "UI handler initialized successfully\n");
-  // ESP_LOGI(TAG, "Main screen displayed with app icons. Tap an icon to launch an app.\n");
 
+    // Random size (30-100 pixels)
+    lv_coord_t width = 30 + (esp_random() % 70);
+    lv_coord_t height = 30 + (esp_random() % 70);
+    lv_obj_set_size(rect, width, height);
 
+    // Random position (avoid top 100px where button is)
+    lv_coord_t x = esp_random() % (LV_HOR_RES - width);
+    lv_coord_t y = 100 + (esp_random() % (LV_VER_RES - 100 - height));
+    lv_obj_set_pos(rect, x, y);
+
+    lv_obj_set_style_bg_color(rect, lv_color_make(0, 0, 0), 0);
+    lv_obj_set_style_bg_opa(rect, LV_OPA_COVER, 0);
+
+    // Make rectangle clickable
+    lv_obj_add_flag(rect, LV_OBJ_FLAG_CLICKABLE);
+
+    // Event handler to delete rectangle when clicked
+    auto rect_event_cb = [](lv_event_t* e) {
+      lv_obj_t* rect = static_cast<lv_obj_t*>(lv_event_get_target(e));
+      lv_obj_del(rect);
+      ESP_LOGI(TAG, "Rectangle deleted");
+      };
+
+    lv_obj_add_event_cb(rect, rect_event_cb, LV_EVENT_CLICKED, NULL);
+
+    ESP_LOGI(TAG, "Created rectangle at (%d, %d) with size %dx%d", x, y, width, height);
+    };
+
+  lv_obj_add_event_cb(btn, btn_event_cb, LV_EVENT_CLICKED, NULL);
+
+  ESP_LOGI(TAG, "Random rectangle demo initialized. Tap button to create rectangles.\n");
 
   // wait for shutdown signal
   ESP_LOGI(TAG, "Waiting for shutdown signal...\n");